Review Questions Planning3 Part3

1. It was during this period that the concept of urban design was established
a) Renaissance
b) Bronze Age
c) Medieval Period
d) Atomic Age

2. They understood the importance of transportation and thus emerges as the first regional planners of the world
a) Greeks
b) Romans
c) Sumerians
d) Egyptians

3. He developed the first theoretical basis for physical planning
a) Hippodamus
b) Nicodemus
c) Nostradamus
d) Aristotle

4. Urbanization began around 4,000 BC in the area known as the
a) Fertile Crescent
b) Mediterranean
c) Babylon
d) Asia

5. Rectangular streets are examples of the
a) Axial
b) Ribbon-type
c) Grid-iron
d) Radial

6. What was the most important factor in designing settlement patterns during the Spanish Period in the Philippines
a) Religion
b) Economy
c) Transportation
d) Plaza

7. He postulated that population increases in a geometric ratio while food production increases arithmetically and that unless natural catastrophes, war or sexual restraint control population increase, worldwide famine or war will follow
a) Von Thunen
b) William Alonso
c) Lowdon Wingo Jr.
d) Robert Malthus

8. The sole regulatory body for housing and land use development. It is charged with encouraging greater private sector participation in low-cost housing through liberalization of development standards, simplification of regulations and decentralization of approvals for permits and licenses.
a) HUDCC
b) HLURB
c) UDHA
d) none of them

9. The most frequent shape of a city, a large circle with radial corridors of intense development emanating from the center.
a) Star
b) Radiocentric
c) Ring
d) None of them

10. This two corridors of intense development crosses at the center and is usually found in small cities
a) Linear
b) Branch
c) Rectilinear
d) None of them

11. These are ways in which the main elements within the city are arranged to form a pleasing and memorable pattern.
a) ornament
b) decoration
c) a & b
d) none of them

12. A street pattern that provides ease of orientation adopted to right angle
a) linear
b) grid
c) concentric
d) star-shaped

13. An area intended for regional shopping centers such as large shopping malls and other regional commercial activities, high-rise hotels, sports stadium or sports complexes.
a) C-1
b) C-2
c) C-3
d) None of them

14. Zoning takes the form of a locally enacted ordinance which embodies among others, regulations affecting:
a) Uses allowed or disallowed in each zone or district
b) Conditions for allowing them
c) Deviations legally allowed from the requirements of the ordinance.
d) All of the above

15. It shall refer to areas designated principally for trade, services and business purposes.
a) Commercial
b) Built-up area
c) CBD
d) None of them

16. The ratio of the total building floor area to the total lot area
a) Floor area ratio
b) Gross ratio
c) Net floor ratio
d) None of them

17. This zone is for particular types of institutional establishments e.g. welfare homes, orphanages, home for the aged, rehabilitation and training centers, military camps/reservation/bases/training grounds, etc.
a) AZ
b) AIZ
c) GIZ
d) SIZ

18. A residential motor court around which housing may be arranged.
a) Collector
b) Links
c) Cul-de-sac
d) None of them

19. He is the author of the 10-volume treatise “de Arkitektura” which relates experience of Roman architecture and town planning
a) Leonardo da Vinci
b) Hipodamus
c) c.) Nicoletus
d) Vitruvius

20. Arturo Soria y Mata suggested this type of development running from Cadiz, Spain across Europe through St. Petersburg in which he proposed that the logic of linear utility line should be the basis of all city lay-out
a) Boadacre
b) Linear City
c) Radiant City
d) Component City

21. This type of development pattern emerged as towns grew around a monastery or castle during the medieval times.
a) Radiocentric
b) Rectilinear
c) Ekistics
d) Nodes

22. Le Corbusier proposed this type of development that is anchored on the objective of decongesting the centers of our cities by increasing their densities by building high on small part of the total ground area.
a) Radburn
b) City Beautiful
c) Radiant City
d) Garden city

23. The minimum population necessary to support a service
a) Threshold population
b) Required population
c) Demography
d) Conurbation

24. This is the golden era of urban design in the U.S. characterized with a totally designed system of main circulation arteries, a network of parks, and clusters or focal buildings or building blocks of civic centers.
a) Radburn
b) City Beautiful Era
c) Garden City Movement
d) Neighborhood Unit

25. The science of Human Settlements
a) Demography
b) Ekistics
c) Logistics
d) Conurbation

26. It is a merging of two or more metropolises with a population of 10 million or more
a) Conurbation
b) Megalopolises
c) Metropolitan
d) Threshold population

27. Each successive district admits the uses of all the more restricted districts
a) Spot zoning
b) Bonus zoning
c) Non-cumulative zoning
d) Inclusionary zoning

28. Exponents of the systems view of planning
i. Brian McLoughlin ii. George Chadwick iii. John Glasson iv. Alan Wilson
a) i, ii, iii
b) ii, iii, iv
c) i, iii, iv
d) i, ii, iv

See answers at http://pupclass.blogspot.com/2008/06/answers-to-review-questions-planning3.html

Review Questions Planning3 Part2

1. It shall refer to a town deliberately planned and built which provides, in addition to houses, employment, shopping, education, recreation, culture and other services normally associated with a city or town.
a) New Town
b) PUD
c) Radburn
d) Neighborhood Unit

2. A special type of bar chart that shows the distribution of a population by age and sex.
a) Population Pyramid
b) Population Projection
c) Population Density
d) Population Implosion

3. The ability of an area’s resource system to support the activities of a given population.
a) Threshold Population
b) Resource Use
c) Carrying Capacity
d) Demography

4. The elements of the human settlements.
i. Nature
ii. Man
iii. Society
iv. Shells
v. Network
vi. Hamlet
vii. Community
a) i, ii, iii, v, vi
b) ii, iii, iv, v, vi
c) i, ii, iii, iv, v
d) i, iii, iv, v, vi

5. The period in history wherein towns grew around either a monastery or castle assuming a radiocentric pattern.
a) Renaissance
b) Ancient Rome
c) Medieval Times
d) Ancient World

6. Leonardo da Vinci described in this book a new concept of urban planning that was suited for Milan, a city straddling a river where upstream, the river was directed into 6 or 7 branches, all parallel to the main stream and rejoining it below the city.
a) Milan Plan
b) De Arkitektura
c) Linear City
d) Codex Atlanticus

7. He wrote the Chicago Plan which was heavily criticized and referred to as centro-centrist
a) Pierre Charles L’Enfant
b) Daniel Burnham
c) Frederick Law Olmstead
d) Clarence Stein

8. The golden era of urban design in the US
a) Garden City Era
b) The Park Movement Era
c) City Beautiful Era
d) The Conservationists Era

9. It is the division of a community into districts or zones according to present and potential uses of land to maximize, regulate and direct their use and development.
a) Comprehensive Development Planning
b) Zoning
c) Land Use Planning
d) Police Power

10. He advocated the concept of the “Social City”, a polycentric settlement, where growth is without limit, surrounded by a greenbelt.
a) Ebenezer Howard
b) Daniel Burnham
c) Frederick Law Olmstead
d) Arturo Soria Y Mata

11. Which one is bigger in the hierarchy of settlements
a) City
b) Metropolis
c) Conurbation
d) Megalopolis

12. He believed in the use of open space as element of urban system.
a) Pierre Charles L’Enfant
b) Daniel Burnham
c) Frederick Law Olmstead
d) Clarence Stein

13. The links within the settlement and with other settlements.
a) Shells
b) Networks
c) Norms
d) Hamlet

14. Father of American Town Planning.
a) Clarence Perry
b) Daniel Burnham
c) Frederick Law Olmstead
d) Clarence Stein

15. A central business district usually has a.
i. High Daytime Population
ii. Large Concentration of Office and Retail Activities
iii. Large Daily Inflow and Outflow of Commuter
a) i, ii, iii
b) i, ii
c) i only
d) iii only

16. Urban development tends to occur along major transportation routes because.
a) Population Tends to Concentrate Where Transportation is Available
b) Transportation Facilities Tend to Service Areas Where There is Population Concentration
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above

17. An area with a minimum income of P20M, at least 10,000 has. in land area or minimum population of 150,000.
a) Component city
b) Highly urbanized city
c) Independent component city
d) City

18. Metro Manila is considered a primate city because
a) It is the largest urban center of the country
b) It contains the country’s primary central business district
c) It has a very large population compared to all other urban centers of the country
d) It is a metropolitan center

19. A single detached dwelling unit is defined as a house
a) Good for one household
b) Intended for ownership
c) Completely surrounded by yards
d) With one or more of its sides abutting the property line

20. A single detached dwelling unit is defined as a house
a) good for one household
b) intended for ownership
c) completely surrounded by yards
d) with one or more of its sides abutting the property line

21. Growth in the proportion of a population living in urban areas
a) Urbanization
b) Demography
c) Megalopolis
d) Component

22. The agency responsible for coordinating the housing program is
a) NHA
b) HUDCC
c) HLURB
d) NEDA

23. An urban planning approach that puts priority on people and environment wherein the model is the traditional city neighborhood that existed before where workplaces, shops and houses where within walking distance of each other
a) Garden City
b) New Urbanism
c) Letchworth
d) Welwyn

24. He postulated that land use diminish intensively in reverse relationship to increased distance
a) Von Thunen
b) William Alonso
c) Lowdon Wingo Jr.
d) Robert Malthus

25. Where can we find the highest level policy statements on environmental protection?
a) Constitution
b) PD 1151
c) RA 5454
d) LOI 90

26. This refers to all barangays or portion/s of which comprise the poblacion and other built-up areas including the urbanizable land in and adjacent to said areas and where at least 50% of the population are engaged in non-agricultural activities:
a) Central business district
b) Urban area
c) City center
d) Suburban area

27. What is zoning?
a) It is the designation and delineation of specific areas of a community as functional land use zones which uses of land may be allowed or regulated in accordance with the goals and objection of the development plan
b) It is a tool to implement the development plan
c) It is a means of redistributing land acquisition and disposition
d) None of the above

28. An urban area becomes a central business district because this is an area where
a) Infrastructure is most concentrated
b) Economic activities and transactions are concentrated
c) The formal economy is present
d) Income is highest

29. The most efficient type of hierarchy of settlements is one wherein
a) There is no single, dominant urban center
b) All settlements are equal in size
c) All settlements are distributed equally in space
d) None of the above

30. Often, a hierarchy of settlements is characterized by the presence of
a) a few large cities, some medium-sized cities, and many small settlements
b) only medium-sized and small settlements
c) equally-sized large cities in every region
d) only one large city and many small settlements

31. A city pattern usually formed of a central core surrounded by a freely arranged constellation of satellite clusters.
a) Grid
b) Star
c) Galaxy
d) Concentric

See answers at http://pupclass.blogspot.com/2008/06/answers-to-review-questions-planning3_03.html

Review Questions Planning Part1

1. A system for recording planning data and ordering the planning process
a) Ekistics Grid
b) Survey before plan
c) Grid System
d) Sectoral Planning

2. Patrick Geddes coined this term to mean the conglomeration of town aggregates, describing the waves of population to large cities followed by overcrowding and slum formation
a) Backflow
b) Broadacre
c) Amorphic
d) Connurbation

3. Also called a “new town idea” which is to create a series of superblocks, island of greens, bordered by homes and carefully skirted by peripheral auto roads.
a) Radburn
b) Neighborhood Unit
c) Broadacre
d) Garden city

4. The result of dense concentrations of people and residents, mixed blocks of different age and conditions.
a) Genius Loci
b) Yuppification
c) Amorphic
d) Obsolescence

5. The maximum distance a consumer is willing to travel to avail of a good or service beyond which people will look to another center
a) Hierarchy of Services
b) Market Area Analysis
c) Market Range
d) Core Periphery

6. Minimization of total costs (transport and production costs) in site selection; supply-oriented
a) Profit Maximizing
b) Market Area Analysis
c) Market Range
d) Least Cost Approach

7. Planning that contains the entire components relevant to the requirements of a geographic area, say socio-economic plan, land use plan, implementing machinery and specific programs and projects within a given time frame.
a) Action-Oriented
b) Sectoral Planning
c) Comprehensive Planning
d) Zoning

8. Planning on a longer term (5 – 10 years) and deals on a particular sector, say transportation, industry or housing.
a) Action-Oriented
b) Comprehensive Planning
c) Sectoral Planning
d) CLUP

9. A plan that has been formulated to check immediate problems of a community on a short term basis.
a) Action-Oriented
b) Sectoral Planning
c) Comprehensive Planning
d) CLUP

10. He conceived the city as a series of five concentric zones
a) Burgess
b) Hoyt
c) Mckenzie
d) Ullman

11. The ever-increasing use of automobiles produced a shift to a more dispersed pattern of development in cities referred to as.
a) Scatteration
b) Sprawl
c) Linear
d) Transition

12. The concept of Homer Hoyt which provided insights into the patterning of land uses and led to a theoretical explanation on residential land uses in terms of wedge-shaped sectors radial to the city’s center along established lines of transportation
a) Concentric Zone Concept
b) Sector Concept
c) Multiple Nuclei Concept
d) Transition

13. Determinants of location
i. Cost and Revenue ii. Topography iii. Accessibility iv. Desirability
a) i, ii, iii
b) ii, iii, iv
c) i, iii, iv
d) i, ii, iv

14. A local legal measure which embodies regulations affecting land use is
a) CLUP
b) Zoning Ordinance
c) Cadastral Survey
d) Tax Declaration

15. In central business districts, the highest land values are usually the areas where…
i. Zoning is for Commercial Land Use
ii. No Front Setback
iii. Fronting the Road
iv. Density is Highest
a) i, ii
b) iii, iv
c) i, iii
d) I, iv

16. An urban ecology process that occurred as early as the late 19th century in England and was attributable among others to the railway system, a mobile middle class and the tendency to establish housing estates/model dwellings.
a) Urbanization
b) Suburbanization
c) Gentrification
d) Sprawl

17. The planning body of the local government unit which assists the Sanggunian in setting the direction for economic and social development and coordinating development efforts within its territorial jurisdiction.
a) LDC
b) Mayor
c) SEPP
d) CLUP

18. A type of urban development in which activities are concentrated at the core and supported by rings of varying width and land use.
a) Star-Shaped
b) Concentric
c) Galaxy
d) Cluster

19. It is a land development scheme wherein project site is comprehensively planned as an entity via unitary site plan which permits flexibility in planning/design, building siting, and the preservation of significant natural land features.
a) PUD
b) STRIP Development
c) Mixed-Use Development
d) New Urbanism

20. A type of development wherein development is on direct frontage on primary distributors.
a) Arterial
b) Commercial Dev’t
c) Strip Development
d) Radburn

21. A concept wherein blocks are lengthened, and cross streets reduced in number or eliminated.
a) Superblock
b) T-intersection
c) Grade Separation
d) Radburn

22. This hypothesis is built around the observation that frequently there are a series of nuclei in the patterning of the urban land uses rather than the single central core used in the other theories.
a) Concentric Nuclei Concept
b) Sector Nuclei Concept
c) Multiple Nuclei Concept
d) Transition

23. A document that describes the present or actual situation of the community in relation to its natural and human resources.
a) SEPP
b) CLUP
c) CDP
d) IP

24. It means the combination of commercial and residential uses on a single lot or within a single integrated development on multiple lots.
a) PUD
b) Mixed-Use Development
c) New Urbanism
d) Cluster Development

25. A major CBD serves a population of _____.
a) 50,000-100,000
b) 100,000-250,000
c) 250,000-300,000
d) 300,000-500,000

26. The use of land which generates the maximum profit without negative consequences especially on the environment
a) Highest and Best Use
b) Zoning
c) Land Use
d) Planning

27. The second zone in Burgess Concentric Zone Theory.
a) CBD
b) Transition Zone
c) Independent Working Men’s Homes
d) Area of Better Residences

28. These development forms a mini-community in which these parts are shared: semi-private open spaces, paths and stairways, parking facilities, children’s play areas, etc.
a) PUD
b) Mixed-Use Development
c) Cluster Development
d) New Urbanism

29. Built-up areas in a general land use map is represented by what colr.
a) Red
b) Yellow
c) Blue
d) Brown

30. According to the Multiple Nuclei Model of Harris and Ullman, this activity will be located on the outskirts of towns or where the outskirts were when the development took place.
a) Heavy Industry
b) High Class Housing
c) CBD
d) Lower Quality Housing

Answers at: http://pupclass.blogspot.com/2008/06/answers-to-review-questions-planning3_7445.html

Tropical Design Module 9: Wind & Air Movement

WIND AND AIR MOVEMENT

Air movement over the skin in warm humid conditions encourages evaporation of sweat from the skin, causing a cooling sensation and lowering the effective temperature.

WIND GRADIENT

Variation in wind speed as wind speeds increase with the height above the ground, and the smoothness of the ground surface.

As wind passes over hills, there is an increase in wind speed on the windward side and a more sheltered area on the leeward side.

Although towns are “rough” and slow down the wind tail, tall buildings will often deflect strong winds down to a lower level.

Corresponding openings on the leeward side must be carefully located to effect effective cross-ventilation of all areas.

Wind shadows must be anticipated in order to be assured that other areas are not deprived of prevailing breezes.

Buildings should be spaced so that openings do not occur within the wind shadow of the building in front.

Average wind speed in the room will relate to the size of the opening, expressed as a percentage of the wall area, taking either the outlet or inlet, whichever is the smaller.

Wind speed increases rapidly as the percentage opening area increases from 0 to 20%.

Above 30% increase in area, the windspeed does not increase so fast.

The variation in wind direction will alter the direction of the wind shadow, and allowance must be made for these variations.

As a rough guide, the wind shadow will be 5 times the height of the building including the pitched roof.

The length of wind shadow for various shapes of buildings is given in the table, i.e., wind shadow length chart.

Tropical Design Module 8: Solar Heat Factor

SOLAR HEAT FACTOR

The percentage of incident solar radiation which is transmitted through a wall, assuming equal air in temperatures on both sides.
The solar heat factor is proportional to the inside rise in temperature and is related to the radiant heat from the ceiling or walls.
Radiation from the walls can be controlled by controlling the reflectivity and the “U” value of the construction.
To avoid excessive radiation, the solar heat factor should not exceed 3% for roofs and 4% or walls in the warm humid tropics.

q / I = 5 U*X %

Where q = heat transfer due to radiation = Q / A (heat flow per unit area)

q = U*A*(tsa-to) / A

q = U*( tsa –to ) from sol-air temp formula tsa = to + (X*I*ro)

q = U*( X*I*ro)

q / I = U*( X*ro ) if ro = 0.05 ----- 5%

Then q / I = 5 U*X %

Example:

From previous example of brickwall, “U” value is 2.6 W / m2 oC.

Absorptivity for external concrete rendering = 0.6

q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *2.6*0.6% = 7.8% > 4% max for walls

To reduce the solar heat factor to acceptable level;

reduce the absorptivity of rendering by using white wash or lime wash with an absorptivity of 0.30
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *2.6*0.3% = 3.9% < 4% max for walls OK

or reduce the transmittance “U” to 1.6 by adding 1cm of expanded polystyrene with resistivity of 30 (resistance is 0.01*30=0.30)
“U” = 1 / (0.385+0.30) = 1.46
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *1.46*0.6% = 4.38% > 4% max for walls
1.5cm of polystyrene (resistance 0.015*30=0.45), “U”=1/(0.385+0.45)
q / I = 5 U*X % = 5 *1.20*0.6% = 3.60% < 4% max for walls OK

TIME LAG

The time taken per fluctuation in temperature to pass through a material of unit thickness (hrs/m3oC).
Time lag depends on two properties:
- thermal capacity (amount of heat required per unit volume per degree rise in temperature)
- Rate of flow of heat

Time lag = thermal capacity / rate of flow of heat

The time constant of a composite temperature is the sum of the time constants of the individual layers.

STANDARDS FOR WARM HUMID CLIMATES:

Walls and Roofs should have:

A reflective surface (low absorptivity)
Light weight material (low heat capacity)
Insulation (low “U” value)

Solar Heat Factor: Roofs 3%
Walls 4%

Time Lag: 3 hours max.

To achieve this,

- Roof should have a cavity between the roof and ceiling. A reflective surface together with a cavity will achieve standard.
- Heavy external walls should be restricted to day rooms, and should be as well shaded as possible.

Tropical Design Mdule 7: Basics of Heat Transfer

Basics of Heat Transfer.

Insulation is measured as the air to air rate of transmission of heat per unit area – the “U” value.

The “U” value represents the rate of heat transfer from inside air per unit area per unit difference in air temperature per unit time.

This is measured in Watts / sqm oC
U = 1 / sum of resistances

Sum of resistances include the following:
- Outside surface resistance
- Inside surface resistance
- Resistance of individual layers of the surface (Resistivity * thickness of each layer)
- Resistance of air spaces and cavities

The purpose of insulation is two-fold:

(1) to retard the flow of heat from one place to. another, and

(1) to maintain temperatures such that condensation does not occur on inside. surfaces.

... Insulation acts to reduce the rate of heat transfer by these methods

Example:
Calculate the “U” value of a brick wall with the following information:
- External surface resistance = 0.05 m2 oC / W
- Brickwall external sand rendering = 1.2 cm (resistivity 1.88 m oC / W)
- Brickwork = 20.0 cm (resistivity 0.83 m oC / W)
- Plaster (gypsum) = 1.0 cm (resistivity 2.17 m oC / W)
- internal surface resistance = 0.123 m2 oC / W

Solution:
External surface resistance: 0.050 m2 oC / W
Sand rendering resistance: 0.012 m * 1.88m oC / W = 0.025 m2 oC / W
Brickwork resistance: 0.200 m * 0.83m oC / W = 0.166 m2 oC / W
Plaster resistance: 0.010 m * 2.17m oC / W = 0.021 m2 oC / W
Internal surface resistance: 0.123 m2 oC / W

Sum of resistances: 0.385 m2 oC / W
“U” value = 1 / sum of resistances = 2.6 W / m2 oC

The rate of heat flow through a wall or roof (where the outdoor air is circulating freely through the building) is given by the formula:

Q = U * A * (t0 – t1)

Where Q = rate of heat flow (in Watts)
U = “U” value
A = superficial area (sqm)
t0-t1 = difference between inside and outside air temperature

SOL-AIR TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the outside air in contact with a shaded wall or roof which would give the same rate of heat transfer and the same temperature gradient as the combined effect of solar radiation and air temperature.
tsa = to + (X * I * ro)

Where tsa = sol-air temperature ( oC )
to = outside air temperature ( oC )
X = absorptivity of surface to solar radiation
I = intensity of radiation ( W / m2 )
ro = outside surface resistance ( m2 oC / W )

It is used to find the heating effect of the radiant heat load.

Example:
Wall surface = same as before where outside surface resistance is
0.05 m2 oC / W
Max. radiation = 600 W / m2
Absorptivity = 0.30
Air temperature = 20 oC

Then:
Sol-Air Temp = 20 oC + ( 600 W / m2 * 0.30 * 0.05 m2 oC / W )
= 20 oC + 9 oC
= 29 oC

Tropical DesignModule 6: Heat Transfer

HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer in buildings may take place in four (4) different ways:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Evaporation and condensation

CONDUCTION

The flow of heat through a material by transfer from warmer to cooler molecules in contact with each other.

Conductivity is the rate of heat transfer that occurs through a unit thickness of material for a unit area subjected to a unit difference in temperature.

Conductivity = per meter (thickness) / (area) * Temp difference (degC)

Conductivity (K value) = W/m degC
Example:
If wall thickness is 0.2m, area of wall is 12sqm and temperature difference is 3degC, then:
Conductivity = 0.2m/(12sqm * 3 degC) = 0.0056W/m degC

Resistance is the ability of a material to resist the flow of heat and is measured by the resistivity.

Resistivity = 1 / Conductivity = m degC / W
Example:
If wall thickness is 0.2m, area of wall is 12sqm and temperature difference is 3 degC, then:

Resistivity = (12sqm * 3 degC) / 0.2m = 180 m degC/W

For a given thickness of material, resistance to heat transfer is:

Resistance = Resistivity * t(mtrs) = m2 oC / W

Example:
If wall thickness is 0.20m, and resistivity is 180 m oC/W, then:

Resistance = 180 moC/W * 0.20m = 36 m2 oC/W

CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the flow of molecules from one place to another.
Natural Convection is the movement of the molecules as a result of the heat energy they possess (i.e. hot air rising).
Forced Convection results from the movement of molecules by pumps, fans, or other movement caused by external forces.
The rate of flow of heat due to natural condition is usually measured by the conductance of a surface or an air movement to a building construction.
Units are Watts / m2 oC
Examples:
1. Warm air rising from register (forced convection).
2. Warm air rising from all surfaces of radiator (after air in contact with radiator has been heated by conduction).
3. Warm air rising from (free convection).

RADIATION
Radiation is the transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic waves.
Radiation travels through air and the rate of transfer of energy is independent of the temperature of the air.
The rate of radiation transfer is measured in Watts per m2.
The rate of flow of radiant heat from the sun can be found from the radiation overlay when it is placed over the sun path diagram.
There are two terms commonly encountered while discussing radiant heat transfer:
Emittance (or emissivity), refers to the ability of a material’s surface to give off radiant energy. All materials have emissivities ranging from zero to one. The lower the emittance of a material, the lower the heat radiated from its surface. Aluminum foil has a very low emittance which explains its use in reflective insulation.
Reflectance (or reflectivity) refers to the fraction of incoming radiant energy that is reflected from the surface. Reflectivity and emissivity are related and a low emittance is indicative of a highly reflective surface. For example, aluminum with an emittance of 0.03 has a reflectance of 0.97.

EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION


HEAT GAIN AND COMFORT

Heat gain in the tropics is due mainly to solar radiation at the surface and only a smaller extent the high air temperatures.

Heat gain in hot climates are highest when there are low wind speeds and less heat is transferred to the air and more to the building surface.

Since major heat gain is from solar radiation, absorptivity of the surface to solar radiation is of primary importance.

Absorptivity and the insulation must be chosen to minimize the proportion of heat from the sun which penetrates the structure when the air temperatures inside and outside are similar.

Relative humidities in tropical regions are very high, hence air movement is the most effective way of increasing comfort by encouraging the evaporation of sweat from the skin.

Design buildings thru which wind can pass with a minimum of obstruction.

Comfort in the warm humid tropics is achieved by encouraging cross ventilation while providing protection from solar radiation.